July 28, 2020 | Adamas University

Post-pandemic Growth Opportunities for the Geographers in Big Data Analytics Market

Dr. Anu Rai, Dr. Rajib Sarkar, Ms. Kasturi Mukherjee, Department of Geography (School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Adamas University)

Big Data

In a simple language big data is larger, more complex data sets, which are hard to manage through traditional data processing environment or techniques. However this massive voluminous data have opened the new horizon of informed-decision making.

6Vs of Big Data

A précised dimension of “big” is subtle. In the era of digital galaxy, Petabyte, Exabyte and Zettabyte, considered large scale today will likely seem small-scale in not so distant future. So the size alone cannot define the dimension of big data, which is highly complex and dynamic in nature. Big data often characterised by its 6Vs.

Volume: The huge measures of information that is created each second/minute/hour/day in the digitized world.
Velocity: This alludes to the speed at which information is being created and the pace at which information moves starting with one point then onto the next.
Variety: This eludes to the ever-expanding various structures that information can come in, e.g., text, pictures, voice, video and geospatial.
Veracity: This illustrates to the nature of the information, which can differ enormously.
Valence: This refers to how huge information connected with each other.
Value: Hidden values from insight must be gained after processing.

The aforesaid Vs represent distinct dimensions of big data. We have huge amount of data generating from different sources, in different formats with varying quality and unexplored value.

Big data in geography

Digital revolution of 21st century has dramatically reduced the cost of data management and computation. Higher interest in understanding the dynamicity of the geographical world around us, led to the growth of empiricism in geography. Empiricism advocates that human knowledge-construction must be based on inductive logic, tested with statistics on the basis of hypothesis. In this digital paradigm, geographical findings are often obtained through computer simulation which is explored from multi-source observations. With the advancement in application of computer and communication technologies, the geographical phenomena are increasingly observed in digital form from multiple sources. There exist three common sources of big data generation in geography:

Machine: In geographical studies, Machine data is often been considered as Sensor data. Data generated by earth observation satellites, weather satellites, data produced by navigational satellites or location data produced by GPS output or RFID chip readings etc. Machine generated data are produced at much faster rate than any other means of data sources. NASA is considered as one of the biggest generators of spatial data, approximately more than 12.1TB per day. It is estimated that at the end of the 2025, the volume of data in the NASA’s Earth Observing System Data and Information System (EOSDIS) archive is projected to be 250 PB.
Organization: Data generated by organization includes the collective data gathering process of institution like smart city data or data generated by national monitoring agencies or demographic and location data collected by big merchants like Amazon, Flipkart etc. The rate of data produced by organization is slower than other sources, however both machine and organization generated big data are more structured in format.
People: Large voluminous and most unstructured data is generated by People in every minute through various social media platforms. It is estimated that almost 300 million new social media users join every year that 550 new users every minute. Since 2013, the number of tweets each minutes increased to 58%, more than 474,000 tweets recorded per minute in 2019. 400 hours of video uploaded to Youtube every minute. Instagram users upload over 100 million photos and video every day and 69,444 posts every minute. Every minute on Facebook: 510,000 comments are posted, 293,000 statuses are updated, and 136,000 photos are uploaded. Facebook users also click the like button on more than 4 million posts every minutes and the Facebook like button has been pressed 13 trillion times. Over 3.5 Billion Google searches are conducted worldwide each minute of every day. It is over 40,000 search queries per second. Devices are a huge source of the data we create everyday and it is not only mobile devices, but our smart TVs, smart watches, cars, or the increasing application of Internet of Things (IoT) technology is producing an ever increasing amount of data at individual level. In geographical domain, each person is considered as a sensor on the Internet, that create big data for public interest either in form of volunteered geographic information (VGI) or crowd-sourcing data. However the data created by people is more unstructured and need special attention to analyse.

Role of big data in informed decision-making

The growth in data and the way it can be used is rapidly changing the the way to analyse and understand the geospatial problems. These huge complex data is helping the decision-makers to understand trends, uncover hidden patterns and detect anomalies behind the scene. The digital universe of complex data, no doubt has enhanced the decision-making capacity of the stakeholders in various fields of geographical interests.

Environmental monitoring and Big data

Since the inception of space technology, big data is playing crucial role in monitoring, predicting and managing environmental issues through its hundreds of missions and thousands of sensors and satellites roaming around the earth and space. Big sensor data is produced by various space agencies across the globe including Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, China National Space Administration, European Space Agency , Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), German Aerospace Center (DLR), Italian Space Agency (ASI), National Centre for Space Studies (France), Canadian Space Agency and many others in the list. The big data archive produced by the earth observation system brought the revolution in the monitoring the geographical phenomena, assessing environmental quality, protecting biodiversity and habitat and most importantly adopting quick response in managing hazards and disasters.

Big data in disaster management

Crisis Mapping Toolkit (integrated big data platform for disaster management that uses diverse data sources) has reshaped the disaster relief pattern around the globe. The first major event that utilized crisis mapping through big data incorporation was the 2010 Haiti earthquake, which killed and injured hundreds of thousands of people damaged the infrastructure badly. People in search of help, started mapping the basic infrastructure, especially in OpenStreetMap, and received better access to resources at much faster rate. Since then, crisis mappers have played significant role in mapped events in Libya (refugees), Japan (crowdsourcing and radiation monitoring for 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and Tsunami), Chile (Humanitarian response to the 2010 Chile earthquake), Pakistan (2010 Pakistan floods, 2011 floods), Somalia (refugees), Alabama (2011 Super Outbreak), Philippines (Typhoon – Haiyan in 2013) India (Flood, 2013; Cyclone 2013) Nepal (Earthquake 2015) and dozens of smaller disasters and events around the world.

Big data in smart city

Feasibility of the smart city initiative is dependent on the big data and evolution of IoT. Big data empowers cities by offering large amount of data collected through various sensors including earth observation system and IoT. IoT incorporates the integration of sensors, radio-frequency indentification and Bluetooth in the real world environment applying higher dense networked services. The continuous application of big data in smart grid system, smart transportation services, smart healthcare services and in smart governance dramatically improving cost effective energy consumption pattern, city pollution, traffic control, safety etc. Many big data merchants are invited to contribute to further enhancement of smart city infrastructure. For instances, recently UBER announced to release 6 years of transportation data to cities to help them in planning public transit. In 2019, UBER served 75 million passengers with 3.9 million drivers with 14 million UBER trips every day.

Big data in crime prediction

Big data has been used to predict crimes before they happen, “predictive policy” trail in California was able to identify areas where crime will occur three times more accurately than existing methods of forecasting. Predictive policy is especially useful in property related misdemeanors like auto robbery and thievery, where patterns can be detected. In Tennese, officials said serious crimes fell 30 percent and violent crimes declined 15 percent since executing predictive analytics. In South Africa few banks have used predictive models to predict next hit on ATM where criminals use explosives to open ATM’s.

How big data fights back against COVID 19?

We all know how big data analytics played crucial role in tracking COVID-19 from global to local scale. It is the capabilities of big data analytics which enabled the faster response in identifying the trend, pattern and more vulnerable communities that further empowered policy-makers in adopting pro-active role in controlling the spread of this global pandemic. South Korea, Taiwan, Germany presented marvelous examples and showcase the impactful application of big data in controlling the spread of COVID-19.

Future of Big Data Analytics Market for Geographers

Acknowledging the role of big data in spatial decision making, big data statistics, analysis and reporting techniques are widely incorporated in recent curriculum of geography. Some prominent big data technologies like Machine learning, Apache Storm; Hadoop and Map Reduce technology, distributed file system with Hive and HBase, data mining tools like RapidMiner, Weka, Orange, Knime or data visualization tools like R, Python, Hadoop, Appache storm, NO SQL, Neo4j, Cassendra etc have been incorporated in the core course structure of Geography. Such updated course curriculum of Geography has revived the new skyline of openings for work to big data geographers.

Recently a report published by a private firm estimates that the global geospatial analytics market size was valued at USD 51,700.7 million in 2018, registering a CAGR of 15.0% from 2019 to 2025. It is assumed that increasing penetration of IoT along with Artificial Intelligence (AI) coupled with big data market will be the major driving shafts to geospatial industry. As geospatial information systems can be easily integrated into an organization’s existing enterprise information systems, it has triggered the growth market of GIS specialists. One of the most controlling variables hampering the market development incorporate operational concerns, for example, such as lack of skilled human resources who are efficient in handling open source tools and massive amount of unstructured data. With all the information created from social media or online networkings, smart sensors, satellites, surveillance cameras, the Internet, and endless different gadgets, big data is surrounding us. The task of the geographer is to learn that how to extract the value and sense out of big data, and see how many opportunities are knocking at your door!!

“Geography and the future of big data, big data and the future of geography” is indispensable.
: Mark Graham and Taylor Shelton, 2013.

#PositiveCorona: Cognitive Robotic Process Automation-Future of work

Issue: Today’s organizations face a number of challenges: increasing efficiency, enhancing decision making, staying competitive, ensuring customer loyalty, reduction in manual efforts, reduction in errors and lastly scale up process with increase in volume. Organizations are continuously trying to streamline finance, accounting, HR, procurement and IT processes. With the advancement in technology, namely digital, newer opportunities are now available for organizations to explore to take efficiency and cost optimization to the next level. Organizations would now need to think out of the box to resolve the core issue and to attain process efficiency at an optimal cost.

Cognitive automation has recognized to be effective in addressing those key challenges. . It is commonly allied with Robotic Process Automation (RPA) as the conjunction between Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Cognitive Computing.

Understanding the Impact of Cognitive Robotic Process Automation: Will there be a world where Robots can intelligently work as a human? Can Robots can perform repairing, monitoring and maintaining costly machineries and equipment?

Gratitude will be given to the integration of Robotic Process Automation (RPA), Data Science and Cognitive methods called Cognitive Robotic Process Automation (CRPA). According to Institute for Robotic Process Automation & Artificial Intelligence-‘Robotic process automation (RPA) is the application of technology that allows employees in a company to configure computer software or a “robot” to capture and interpret existing applications for processing a transaction, manipulating data, triggering responses and communicating with other digital systems.’ Cognitive automation leverages different algorithms and technology approaches such as image processing, natural language processing, text analytics and data mining, semantic technology, deep learning and machine learning.

RPA can be considered as one of the most proficient and developing form of technology which can reduces cost & improves efficiency, shift Full-time equivalent (FTE) resources to activities with higher revenue generating opportunities, support processes that has been outsourced to shared services centers and improve service delivery to internal customers. By making brainy use of resources, near-zero error rates and improved compliance and reduced process cycle time Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is expected to save companies 50-70% on labor costs.

Myth: The belief that automation is going to take all jobs and lead to mass unemployment is a myth. People also think CRPA is Artificial Intelligence, and it is a human replacement to correct processes. However robots cannot replace human functions – without intelligence, compassion, communication skills and judgment calls processes would not work. RPA allows employees to emphasis on only jobs humans can do; strategy making, planning, creativity and connecting with people.

Shift in Gears: Conventional Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is already adopted. As the processes advanced, and modified, the obvious next thought is to start exploring Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) can supplement these processes. The objective is to turn RPA from being dumb automation to intelligent automation. The expansions in cognitive computing, enables to put things in a context and use logical/mathematical reasoning to evaluate problems, instead of just automating repetitive and dumb problems that IT faces.

Cognitive computing enabled RPA can help to change the attention of IT – from process automation to delivering business outcomes. Placing more worth on the end outcome or action makes IT strengthen its position within the organization and establishes IT as a true business enabler. By being able to effectively process businesses’ data, coupled with the ability to learn from past experiences, these systems can learn and eventually master the tasks they are given. In short: continuous improvement.

With continuous progression in technologies like Chat BOTS, virtual reality, computer technology, natural language processing, and speech recognition technology; RPA capabilities are being extended to processes that require perception building or smart decision making into account unstructured data during automation. CRPA vendors are now busy in integrating cognitive abilities into their product and also working as third party providers of dedicated cognitive tools to offer clients much needed solutions for their enterprise. The consequences of cognitive RPA are great and foretell a productive future in which not only throughput is massively enhanced, but also new strategic possibilities are envisioned.

Be “in control” of your future! Have you watched a TV, driven a car, used running water, listened to an iPod, played games on your Wii, or sent text messages on your cell phone lately? Nearly each and every modern ease is the result of complex processes. Without talented individuals to design, build, improve, and uphold these processes, our world and our future would be very different. Cognitive Robotic Process Automation and control professionals literally control the world.

Moreover in this novel coronavirus (COVID-19) crisis has pushed companies to revolutionize like never before. Leaders who may have been slow to adopt automation technologies—such as Cognitive Robotic Process Automation (CRPA), artificial intelligence (AI), and machine learning (ML)—have begun leveraging them as a way to cut costs during economic turmoil, provider faster service to customers, and revamp their operations for distributed work.

While in the pre-crisis era, Cognitive Robotic Process automation was viewed as a means to innovate, reduce cost and gain a competitive edge, now the purpose has shifted to survival and damage restriction. To mitigate global supply chain risks for future crises, manufacturers will encourage their in-house capabilities instead of out-sourcing manufacturing to other countries. The pandemic will exaggerate the need to automate, especially in jobs that have high human interaction and the ones that are hazardous, causing death or injuries. Building technologies that will protect and provide workers and consumers, a safe environment will be the central point in this drive to RPA.

Although, the degree of adoption may be varied depending on the industry and the readiness of the companies to make huge investments at this time, the COVID-19 crisis has certainly acted as a catalyst to the transition to automation, especially in building resilience among businesses for future disruptions.

Post COVID New Age Media Careers Beckon You

There is this news all around. People in newspapers are losing jobs in large numbers since the COVID19 pandemic struck the nation. It was expected for quite some time. The rise of the digital media and convergence of multi-media in news signaled the decline of the high expensive print media news. And the pandemic, physical distancing norms and lockdown just made it the decline faster. And so is the fate of cinema which with closed multiplexes which may continue so till end of 2020, the theatre based analogous cinema has gone for a toss virtually. Alongside, the events industry has also taken a big hit as no gatherings are being allowed due to infectious nature of the virus.

These exactly have laid the path for New Media in the real sense to evolve.

From Print led news media of the last century, we had moved to a television led news media in India since 2000, with its apex being during the India Against Corruption movement and the rise of the new set of politicians today. But with the pandemic striking hard and for long, we are decidedly moving into web-led mobile-journalism led new form of news media, where web will break stories, television will follow up and keep debating on the same, and print will get into deeper details. Web will give the speed and the spread of news, television the talking points and visual impact, print the depth and details. We now need a new crop of multimedia journalists equally comfortable on the mobile, the camera and on the laptop.

Similarly for entertainment, the formats are becoming obsolete and web entertainment is coming of age to rule the roost, with stories from 10/20 minutes short stories, 40/50 minutes long featurettes and above 70 minutes feature films. Some eight films in Bollywood and at least six in Hollywood have been launched on OTT platforms since the lockdown. Television entertainment is also taking a new avatar with reinventing past stories, keeping newer content crisp and with lesser characters, and focusing on stories rather than actors, as in the new age films.

Radio is having a new birth, and news and fiction in radio shall be the newer content ahead, apart from musical entertainment which has already matured.

The other interesting part of media of tomorrow is the communication of brands and marketing which is moving on to the web too, with more branded content, longer acts rather than shorter ads, more e-events organized digitally, and press conferences going digital. The focus of brands and marketing today is more on core values, stakeholders’ interest and compassion rather than aggressive sales except for essentials.

The changed scenario hence needs New Age media professionals:

(A) Media technology professional adept on the web, with shoot and edit, with sound and graphics, with animation and gaming, with special and visual effects, and with virtual and augmented reality. Hence, Adamas University, for the first time in east and northeast India, has come out with BSc Media Technology for those who love technology and are not writing and research oriented much. The higher version of the same is MSc Media Technology.

(B) Media management professionals who can build and manage brands and reputation, strategize and execute events in the new normal, ensure media revenues, market films and television or web entertainment, and build online reputation and seamlessly integrate that with image on ground. All of these leading to sustainable branding and marketing. Hence, Adamas University, again for the first time in eastern and northeastern India, has come out with MBA Communication & Management and MBA Events & Entertainment Management.

(C) News media professionals who can integrate convergent of multi-media news content and work simultaneously for web, television, radio and print media, for whom the University has evolved a program titled MA in Convergent Journalism. At the Bachelors level, it is BA in Media & Communication, which also covers film, television, advertising, PR content.

(D) Also needed are the Entertainment media professionals who can be the creative minds behind entertainment initiatives, like television serials, cinema, branded films, music and radio entertainment, and can focus on research, writing, scripting, directing etc. For them is MA in Entertainment Media covering films, television and radio entertainment.

With these very well developed programs with clear purpose on learning outcomes and with full focus on hands-on training with multiple studios, Adamas University is charting a new path in the domain of creative education in this part of the country.

#BiotechNext : Bioprocess sector working to maintain technology supply amid COVID-19 and also expected revenue outcome of key players after the pandemic

The modern bioprocessing Technology is the subdiscipline within biotechnology which functions as a translator in between the discoveries of life science into practical products, processes, or systems that can be served the needs of society. The biotechnologist having an obvious knowledge of Bioprocess has many missions. Although the most visible today is the production of biopharmaceuticals, bioprocess technology also has a major role in the existing multi-billion-dollar fermentation industries responsible for the production of ethanol, amino acids, and other organic acids, antibiotics, and other specialty products.Fig1. represent the growing scope area of bioprocess technology.

Figure 1. The diverse growing spectrum of bioprocess technology.

Biopharmaceutical biologic such as insulin, tissue plasminogen, activator, and erythropoietin are the dominant products in current bioprocess technology products and predominantly controls commercial activities related to biotechnology. Innovations in bioprocess engineering to manufacturing these products can be of great consequences. Those will help in improving product recovery, product purity, process safety and reduce manufacturing and quality-control costs. Process innovation is also one of the needs which can intensify as patent protection for the product expires and increase global competition for international markets and regulatory procedures.

There will be significant growth in the usage of health care products emerging from biotechnology all over the world in comparison to the current scenario (examples include recombinant hemoglobin, recombinant albumin, and conjugate vaccines). There will be demand for second-generation products as well; large scale manufacturing facilities that handle biological systems and bioprocess technology will be in the spotlight and essential for successful commercialization for products.

The current Covid-19 crisis changes the dynamics of bioprocessing. Specifically, there are two different spectra of impact on the bio-process market, one is a short term, another is long term.

Essentially all the bioprocessing related industries are mostly unaffected and continuing their operations as expected however there are short-term impacts in some areas of bioprocessing sector are facing operational challenges for the lower number of available resources during a pandemic.

As expected, many companies, including developers and suppliers of hardware and services, are increasing their pandemic-related R&D and manufacturing. Suppliers are expecting and planning for increased business as companies and governments start to rapidly develop, test, and deploy pandemic-related vaccines, therapeutics, and diagnostics. There has been a spike in demand for stockpiling the supplies but that’s for the short-term. As per the economic stress is concerned healthcare segments are less sensitive.

The general expectation is that there will be relatively minimal adverse near/short-term economic impact and its aftermath on the bio-processing sector as a result of the pandemic. Most companies are sticking to their long-term capital-intensive expansions and mergers/acquisitions.

Several fundamental changes are going to take place in the ‘Post-COVID’ era which will evolve as a result of the pandemic and those changes will last for the long term.

Many of these, such as-

the increase in the number of global facilities,
more pandemic-related R&D and manufacturing,
quick supplies and services,
more modular facilities,
single-use systems (SUS) process lines and facilities,
faster R&D and speed-to-market,
more collaboration,
more investment,
more automation will be prioritized.

The novel Covid-19 appears to be a catalyst for the acceleration of existing and emerging trends in the industry.

Bioprocess technology can play a major role to produce new smaller molecules and special bioproducts by application of bio-knowledge and technology. A major challenge is to get value-added products on a large scale by applying bioprocessing. Those are integrated processes that use agricultural and forestry-based materials and other renewable resources. Byproducts of food production (animal health-care, biological plant-growth promoters and pesticides, nutritional supplements, and food additives) have large-tonnage product opportunities and those can be tapped in the coming decade, provided that suitable manufacturing facilities are designed and built. Currently, these facilities do not exist and the major challenge for bioprocessing is to make those facilities created and available. Proper infrastructure for practical implementation needs to be developed along with the process knowledge enhancement program because, in the coming decade, the processing of renewable resources will be one of the topmost priorities throughout the nation. Bioprocessing in space presents unique opportunities, particularly in bio-regenerative life support and as a research platform for the study of unfamiliar types of manufacturing processes.

As per the recent survey, bioprocess companies have displayed robust nature to deal with the pandemic and tried to keep the business uninterrupted. The current crisis has given enough fuel to bioprocess industries to prepare for future pandemics. There will be some long-term adjustments to handle any crisis; new strategies are going to be in place to moderate future supply shortages, collaborative relationship with research & development team and the suppliers need to be developed, rapid and flexible implementation and modular production process to speed up the supply to the market. Manufacturing industries will be affected which these changes; may not be now but after the crisis resolves.

#MicrobiologyNext: Epidemiology of Infectious diseases: An offshoot of Medical Microbiology

Medical microbiology is a subdivision of microbiology that concerns the study of pathogenesis and epidemiology of microorganisms that can infect and cause disease symptoms in human beings. This subject specialization evolved to complement medical science with its hands-on applications as diagnostic and therapeutic guidance in disease management. The clinical facet of the field emphasizes on detecting the occurrence of microbial infections and its spread in individuals, the prognosis of the disease, and protocols for treatment. This individualistic concept derived from clinical microbiology must be elaborated to public health as most of the time the infectious diseases do not remain confined in one or few subjects, rather can spread, persist and affect a large number of people over time. This is true for all infectious diseases irrespective of the ailments being sporadic, endemic, epidemic, or pandemic. A cornerstone to this public health is the second facet of medical microbiology known as epidemiology. The word “Epidemiology”, is derived from Greek ‘epi’, meaning ‘upon, among’, ‘demos’, meaning ‘people, district’, and ‘logos’, meaning ‘study. Therefore epidemiology is the study of where-about of a disease and is considered to be the basic science of preventive medicine. An epidemiologist moves ahead of the biology of understanding the disease processes, and also relies on social sciences to elucidate proximate and distal causes, engineering for assessment of exposure to the disease and statistics to utilize the data/observation to reach apt inferences. This is because, for the prevention of infectious disease, it is crucial to understand the causative agents, risk factors, and circumstances that lead to a specific disease, and even simple interventions may break the chain of transmission. Clinical microbiology and epidemiology operate in cooperative and interdependent ways to determine the dynamics of infection and also accurate tracking of etiological agents.

Ignaz Semmelweis was the first to demonstrate the significance of epidemiology who by careful analysis of statistical data alone inferred about the mode of transmission of streptococcal puerperal fever. He also formulated handwashing to be a way out to prevent transmission decades before the discovery of the causal agent itself (Streptococcus pyogenes). Since then, each organism can be assigned with its profile of vital statistics contributing significantly to morbidity and mortality of human beings globally. Some agents are transmitted by air or water, some by food, and others by insects or other animals; many are en route from one person to another. Some agents occur globally, and others are limited in specific geographic locations or ecologic niche. Knowledge regarding the mode of transmission of the causal organism in the target population is crucial to understanding the disease. Considering the advent of new diseases, it is also essential to determine whether the etiological agent is truly novel or derivatized from previously existing ones. Unraveling mysterious outbreaks or identification of new epidemiologic patterns have often led to the path of isolating new agents.

Epidemiologists concentrate their study on population groups rather than on individuals. It can cohort studies where subjects are selected based on their exposure status, i.e., the study participants should be at risk of the outcome under investigation as the study initiates and will be followed through time to assess their later outcome status. Infectious disease epidemiology also considers the interaction between individuals within the population group in two ways-

(i) case-series study involving the qualitative study of the outcome in a single patient/ small group of patients with comparable diagnosis/ a statistical factor to cause illness with periods when they are unexposed. Considering a single patient or patients with a similar diagnosis, no inference can be drawn about the general population of patients. However, the identification of a unique feature of disease/ patient history may lead to the proposition of a new hypothesis regarding the natural history of the disease or possible causal factors.

(ii) case-control study which is a retrospective study of subjects who are disease positive (case) w.r.t. group of disease negative people (control) within the same population.

The Changing Picture of Infectious Disease Epidemiology

More than forty new pathogens have been identified in the last three decades, some of which are of global importance. Causative agents for infectious diseases are specific, but they may change over time. The best illustration of an etiological agent to undergo modifications that enable them to reinfect subjects that have already been infected and immune is the Influenza virus owing to antigenic shift and antigenic drift in surface antigens (H and/or N).

In recent times all over the world, there has been an increase in the number of people who are at high risk for infectious disease. Improvement in health –care and increased life expectancy in developed countries have led to an increase in the number of people who are aged and /or immune-deficient (cancer survivors, transplant patients, or people on immunosuppressive drugs for long-term autoimmune diseases) predisposed to infectious diseases and developing life-threatening complications. In populations that were originally at low risk, adoption of altered lifestyles has increased opportunities for disease transmission. Intravascular drug injections, air travel, consumption of raw fish, ethnic foods expanded the area of distribution of a variety of infectious agents.

Evolutionary biology

Infectious disease epidemiology is aimed at curtailing the influence of pathogens on public health. As both pathogens and their hosts have evolved, knowledge of evolutionary biology is pertinent to decipher the nature of their interactions for fitness, as well as to understand the history of pathogen transmission. Mathematical models can be used to study the effects of different selective markers (measurable biological and behavioral risk factors), whereas molecular data can be used to define different strains and their genetic variations. Recent progressions, particularly in the rapid determination of sequence data, have increased the propensity of evolutionary biology towards clinical microbiology.

Molecular strain typing

The practical science of infectious disease epidemiology involves the authentication of infectious etiologies through repeated isolation of a specific microorganism from patients with a given disease or syndrome as well as from animals, vectors, and environmental sources to identify reservoirs and modes of transmission. To prescribe effective therapy often it is essential to identify species of infecting microorganisms through phenotypic and genotypic characterization. Phenotypic methods like biotyping of biochemical profiles, phage typing, and serological typing help to characterize the products of gene expression to differentiate strains. But they are inadequate to provide enough unrelated parameters for proper reflection of genotype. Also, phenotypic methods tend to give variable results as many gene expressions are affected by spontaneous mutations, environmental conditions, or reversible phenotypic changes; therefore, they have been replaced by genotypic methods that rely on the analysis of the genetic structure of an organism. Highly sensitive and specific molecular techniques have recently been adopted to facilitate epidemiologic studies through the detection and characterization of the genetic variability of infectious agents (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, viruses). It necessitates the selection of molecular method(s) that can discriminate genetic variants at different hierarchical levels namely, above the level of species, between species, between intraspecific variants, etc. coupled with the selection of a region of nucleic acid suitable for interrogation. For bacterial fingerprinting RFLP-PFGE, RFLP+ probe & ribotyping have been the most commonly used. RAPD and karyotyping have been used for fingerprinting fungi while MLEE, RAPD, and PCR-RFLP have been used for parasitic protozoa. Except for whole-genome sequencing, the other molecular methods analyze only a small portion of the organisms’ genetic complement. For this reason, only whole-genome sequencing would provide the unequivocal data required to distinguish isolates exhibiting similar patterns despite being unrelated epidemiologically.

Omics and epidemiology

Application of omics to infectious disease epidemiology breaks free the study beyond single organisms. Next-generation sequencing technologies like the 454 Pyrosequencing (Roche, Branford, CT) and massively parallel sequencing by synthesis (Illumina, San Diego, CA) allow the characterization of the structure and functionality of microbial communities based on genetic sequence based on the sequence of the ribosomal genes ( rDNA ). Rapid sequencing technologies provide adequate data to characterize the microbial communities living on and in the human body, how they vary over periods, respond to treatment, and interact with pathogens. The Human Microbiome Project is an on-going effort funded by the National Institutes of Health to provide these parameters. Taxonomy based on the ribosomal gene sequence gives rise to operational taxonomic units (OTUs) or phylotypes that enable identification and characterization of minute variations in candidate species in a microbial community in terms of species richness, evenness, and diversity.

In the pretext of COVID-19 pandemic, interrogating epidemiology of viral and other infectious diseases has gained the utmost priority through the study of the complex relationships among hosts and infectious agents to reduce a load of pathogenicity on the public health sector globally. Epidemiologists are concerned with virus spread or transmission, with or without the disease. Viral epidemiologists try to envisage the potential for the development of epidemics, with the ultimate aim to define the kinds of interventions that could contain a virus outbreak. To model virus transmission, epidemiologists must try to consider a variety of attributes involving both host and virus. Similar objectives and modeling are applicable for any other type of infectious disease transmission too. Factors that can impact microbial transmission and spread of infection include: a) prevalence of the causal agent within the population, b) mode of transmission of the agent, c) duration of the infection, d) proportion of susceptible and resistant individuals in the population, e) population density, f) modes of travel or associations, g) lifestyle and h) climate and/or season. Once all the parameters are taken into account a disease model can be envisioned that will complement the clinical findings to formulate appropriate disease management protocol for infectious diseases.

GLOBAL PANDEMIC: AN ORISON FOR CRIME CONTROL?

By: Miss. Ritu Basu. BSc. LLB, SOLJ, AU

Faculty guide: Dr. Anwesha Chatterjee, Assistant Prof. Biotechnology, SOLB, AU

“I need not pause to explain that crime is not a disease. It is criminology that is a disease.”
― G.K. Chesterton, Eugenics and Other Evils: An Argument against the Scientifically Organized State.

While there happened to begin an ever-multiplying growth in the debates, discussions, and immense study on nature, psychology, and cause behind the increasing crime rates across the world, and a quest for effective measures to control the same, there appeared the blessing in disguise for the crime prevention authorities, in the form of a deadly virus.

On the 11^th of March, this year, the World Health Organization declared COVID-19, the disease caused by ‘coronavirus’ as a ‘global pandemic’, and ever since then ‘Stay home, stay safe’ has become the go-to slogan for every human being. The nature of the virus has made people, across the world, resort to staying indoors, and admire work-from-home. No doubt this pandemic has forced the biggest lockdown in history with billions of people advised staying indoors. Expert opinions and statistics have shown that this measure has affected the rate of several crimes against the human body, crimes against property, and organized crimes to a large extent.

Among various factors like poverty, social tolerance, and socio-economic conditions, that have been identified to affect crime rates, ‘population’ and ‘law enforcement efficiency’ has proved to be vital features that have influenced crime growth in any jurisdiction. Various researches have earlier shown that the increase in population at a given area has direct relations to the crime trend. Logically, the lesser the human interaction in society, the lesser will be its crime rate. From common parlance, this can be simply explained by looking at the nature of certain offenses. For example, criminal trespass, housebreaking, or theft, are offenses which, to put it straight; require the offender to leave his place of dwelling. Murders and rapes require human interactions to take place.

The Government of India declared a lockdown as a precautionary measure for the prevention of the spread of this disease. Since then, the country has witnessed a sharp decrease in common criminal activities in various states. According to a report published in ‘The Indian Express’ on 17^th July 2020, the unintended consequence of this huge lockdown has been a marked decrease in crimes and road fatalities in the country.

The first phase of lockdown has rendered a 40% fall in murder cases, a 70% fall in rapes, and as much as 100% fall in offense of violence against women and children, according to the State Crime Record Bureau, Kerala. The state has also seen a remarkable decrease in the number of suicides and unnatural deaths, as compared to the same time as the previous year. Kerala, which accounts for a large share of road accident cases due to overcrowding of roads, has even experienced almost 17 times lesser road accident cases than the previous year, proved by a lesser number of admissions in the casualty section of the hospitals, and reduction in the trauma cases in the state.

Industrial areas in certain metropolitan cities like Bengaluru have reported significantly less number of industrial accident cases, for the obvious reason of closure of such industries and factories due to the lockdown.

Various state authorities have attributed the cause of a decrease in crimes due to shut down of liquor shops. Liquor has always played a significant role as a stimulant in the commission of violent crimes. Psychiatrist Dr. Vivian Kapil has confirmed the fact by stating “There is a definite correlation between alcohol use and violent tendencies. Other impulsive behaviors linked to alcohol abuse are rash driving, fighting over trivial reasons, irritability, and high-risk sexual behavior.” As a result of the closure of the source of such stimulants, the decrease in crime rates has been evident.

Senior police officials of the state of Assam have reported that the lockdown has resembled curfew-like situations, especially during the night, and hence has deterred the commission of certain crimes like house breaking by night or aggravated forms of robbery. Officials have stated that people are afraid to step out at night.

The law enforcement efficiency and more number of cops present on the roads have also deterred offenders from committing crimes more often. States have reported fewer cases of organized crimes like human trafficking and drug trafficking as the lockdown has resulted in the ‘breaking of chain’ at various places that act as a potential source, transit, or destination for such crimes.

The complete seizure in the operation of railways has also influenced the number of unnatural deaths in the country. No doubt, suicides, and casualties on train tracks have taken a hit too.

The significant decrease in the robberies and rape cases in the country has led to a feeling of security among citizens. As there has been less reporting of such grievous offenses, police officials have been able to devote their maximum time and effort to the COVID management task. Otherwise, the situation would have been disastrous in a country with increasing cases of death due to the disease as well as grievous offenses ravishing the nation.

However, several other forms of crimes have taken a sharp rise amidst the COVID-19 crisis. At the outset, it has to be mentioned that the disobedience to the quarantine rule promulgated by the State has been made punishable under various Sections of the Indian Penal Code. A lot of people are being booked under Section 188 of the Indian Penal Code (Disobedience to an order duly promulgated by a public servant) and Section 269 thereof (Negligent act likely to spread infection of disease dangerous to life). These offenses, though minor, have made significant changes to the crime rate in a place.

India has witnessed a significant increase in domestic violence cases and violence against married women, according to the increased number of cases reported at the National Commission for Women. The country has even observed an upsurge in the assault on doctors and health workers during the crisis. Several healthcare workers in India have been attacked as they battle to stop the spread of the coronavirus. Reports say doctors have been spat at and chased away from homes, and that in one case-patients directed abusive and vulgar language towards female nurses. Some physicians and their families have also been ostracized by their neighbors because of their exposure to patients infected with COVID-19.

Also, resort to online modes of activities for governance, education, and work; there has been a rise in the cybercrime cases across the country that has led to people losing out on data privacy and security. A report has revealed that India has seen a 37 percent increase in cyberattacks in the first quarter of 2020, as compared to the fourth quarter of last year,. The Kaspersky Security Network (KSN) report showed that its products detected and blocked 52,820,874 local cyber threats in India between January and March this year. The data also shows that India now ranks 27th globally in the number of web-threats detected by the company in quarter 1 of 2020 as compared to when it ranked on the 32nd position globally in quarter 4 of 2019.

Hence, with new forms of offenses emerging and certain offenses not at all being affected by the lockdown, there remains an iota of doubt whether the precautionary due to the COVID-19 crisis has proved to be a boon to help in the diminution of the crime rate of the country.

Scope of Environmental Engineering

Student Contribution: Anjushree Saha, Final year student (M.Tech., Civil Engineering), Adamas University

Environmental Engineering is the application of science and engineering principles that provide a better environment, to give healthy water, air and land for human habitation and other living things, and to rehabilitate polluted areas. In addition, it focuses on finding appropriate solutions in the field of public health, such as arthropod-related diseases, and in enforcing laws that promote adequate sanitation in urban, rural, and recreational areas.

The Importance of Environmental Engineering to Society

The world today faces many environmental problems, ranging from local problems such as groundwater depletion to global problems such as climate change. These problems can only be solved when everyone cares about the environment. Therefore, everyone needs to be informed about the various causes, consequences and remedies of environmental problems. It is therefore necessary to preface their consideration with the statements of the broader characteristic divisions such as-

It guides us on how our developmental and daily activities affect the environment and how we are affected by changes in environmental conditions.
It guides us to create a pollution free environment (which includes clean air, water, land and food) by adopting various methods of prevention and control of pollution.
It guides our natural resources such as water, forests, minerals and fossil fuels to be utilized in an efficient way, with maximum utility and minimum waste by adopting conservation and recycling strategies.
Adopts the above three characteristics, namely, knowing one’s environmental impact, prevention and control of pollution, and efficiently utilizing resources efficiently in daily activities to lead the general public in an environmentally friendly way.
It allows industries to operate in an environmentally friendly mode by adopting clean and efficient technology and installing pollution control systems.

Role of Environmental Engineering for Sustainable Development

So far as contribution of Environmental Engineering for protection of the environment is concerned, it can be said that role of environmental engineering is commendable. Some of the contributions of environmental engineering are as follows-

To protect soil erosion for safeguard of forest.
Using of Environmental Engineering technology degradation of bio social system can be prevented.
Air pollution can be minimized up to a maximum extent by utilizing Environmental Engineering.
Development of agriculture is necessary and the requirement can be fulfilled through Environmental Engineering.
Environmental Engineering is utilized for preservation of social energy.
Global crises on environment can be minimized by utilizing Environmental Engineering technology.
Facilitate for sustainable development of the society.
It helps for social and economical development.

Scope of the Environmental Engineering:

Three major areas of applicability of the Environmental Engineering are

Management of natural resources,
Conservation of ecosystem and biodiversity, and
Prevention and control of pollution.

Major career options related to the subject can be described as follows:

Industries: Industries need to comply with a number of environmental regulations. Thus, environmental experts are needed to guide industries in adopting clean technology, pollution control, waste disposal and environmental audit management.

Consultancy: Environmental consultations are employed by governments, industries and NGOs to conduct a variety of laboratory-based analysis or field-based studies, often required in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and other compliance processes.

Research and Development: These opportunities in this area include studying different types of pollution and their many causes and effects. It is also includes development of clean and efficient technologies for future purpose. Scientists, researchers, and analysts are many of the common career profiles.

Academics: Environmental Engineering study is educated at almost every level of education, which is from school to university level. A large number of teachers or academicians are required to fulfill this need.

Green marketing: Skilled manpower is required to promote eco friendly products in local market. Environmental quality certifications like ISO-14000 are also being included in marketing strategy—this creates further career opportunities.

Green media: There is an urgent need for skilled manpower in print and electronic media to create environmental awareness. Some lot of magazines and newspapers regularly publish articles paper on environmental themes. For example, Down to Earth is a magazine published by the Center for Science and the Environment.

Green advocacy: Environmental lawyers are emerging as major players in ensuring proper enforcement of environmental regulations, laws, and programmers. Public Interest Litigation (PIL) empowers of ordinary people to fight against any anti-environment activity.

Government jobs: Many numbers of conventional and current common jobs are available in government bodies such as environmental ministry, pollution control boards, national parks, and biosphere reserves.

International agencies: Eligible human resources are required to implement environmental projects of various international organizations such as UNEP, IUCN, TSBF, and World Bank.

In a concluding remark, the career & job prospects of structural engineers are very bright in the coming future days. If you are focused and passionate, you can lead a bright career.

Further Studies